Ayub ruled Pakistan almost absolutely for more
than ten years, and his regime made some
notable achievements, although it did not eliminate
the basic problems of Pakistani society. A land
reforms commission appointed by Ayub distributed
some 900,000 hectares (2.2 million acres) of land
among 150,000 tenants. The reforms, however, did not
erase feudal relationships in the countryside; about
6,000 landlords still retained an area three times
larger than that given to the 150,000 tenants.
During Ayub's regime developmental funds to East
Pakistan increased more than threefold. This had a
noticeable effect on the economy of the eastern
part, but the disparity between the two sectors of
Pakistan was not eliminated.
Perhaps the most pervasive of Ayub's changes was his
system of Basic Democracies. It created 80,000 basic
democrats, or union councilors, who were leaders of
rural or urban areas around the country. They
constituted the electoral college for presidential
elections and for elections to the national and
provincial legislatures created under the
constitution promulgated by Ayub in 1962. The Basic
Democratic System had four tiers of government from
the national to the local level. Each tier was
assigned certain responsibilities in administering
the rural and urban areas, such as maintenance of
primary schools, public roads, and bridges.
Ayub also promulgated an Islamic marriage and family
laws ordinance in 1961, imposing restrictions on
polygamy and divorce, and reinforcing the
inheritance rights of women and minors.
For
a long time Ayub maintained cordial relations with
the United States, stimulating substantial economic
and military aid to Pakistan. This relationship,
however, deteriorated in 1965, when another war with
India over Kashmir broke out. The United States then
suspended military and economic aid to both
countries, thus denying Pakistan badly needed
weapons. The USSR then intervened to mediate the
conflict, inviting Ayub and Prime Minister Lal
Bahadur Shastri of India to Toshkent. By the terms
of the so-called Tashkent Agreement of January 1966,
the two countries withdrew their forces to pre-war
positions and restored diplomatic, economic, and
trade relations. Exchange program were initiated,
and the flow of capital goods to Pakistan increased
greatly.
The Tashkent Agreement and the Kashmir war,
however, generated frustration among the people of
Pakistan and resentment against President Ayub.
Foreign Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto resigned his
position and agitated against Ayub's dictatorship
and the "loss" of Kashmir. In March 1969 Ayub
resigned. Instead of transferring power to the
speaker of the National Assembly, as the
constitution dictated, he handed it over to the
commander-in-chief of the army, General Agha
Muhammad Yahya Khan. Yahya became President and
declared martial law.
In an attempt to make his regime more acceptable,
Yahya dismissed almost 300 senior civil
servants and identified 30 families that were said
to control about half of Pakistan's gross national
product. To curb their power Yahya in 1970 issued an
ordinance against monopolies and restrictive trade
practices. He also made commitments to transfer
power to civilian authorities, but in the process of
making this shift, his intended reforms broke down.
The greatest challenge to Pakistan's unity,
however, was presented by East Pakistan, led by
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, leader of the Awami League,
who insisted on a federation under which East
Pakistan would be virtually independent. He
envisaged a federal government that would deal with
defense and foreign affairs only; even the
currencies would be different, although freely
convertible. His program had great emotional appeal
for East Pakistanis. In the election of December
1970 called by Yahya, Sheikh Mujib-as Mujibur Rahman
was generally called-won by a landslide in East
Pakistan, capturing a clear majority in the National
Assembly. The Pakistan People's Party (PPP) formed
by Bhutto in 1967 emerged as the largest party in
West Pakistan. Suspecting Sheikh Mujib of
secessionist politics, Yahya in March 1971 postponed
indefinitely the convening of the National Assembly.
Mujib in return accused Yahya of collusion with
Bhutto and established a virtually independent
government in East Pakistan. Yahya opened
negotiations with Mujib in Dhaka in mid-March, but
the effort soon failed. Mujib was arrested and
brought to West Pakistan to be tried for treason.
Meanwhile Pakistan's army went into action against
Mujib's civilian followers, who demanded freedom and
independence for East Pakistan, or Bangladesh
("Bengali Nation") as it was to be called. There
were a great many casualties during the ensuing
military operations in East Pakistan, during which
the Pakistani army attacked the poorly armed
population. India claimed that nearly 10 million
Bengali refugees crossed its borders, and stories of
West Pakistani atrocities abounded. The Awami League
leaders took refuge in Calcutta and established a
government-in-exile. India finally intervened on
December 3, 1971, and the Pakistani army surrendered
13 days later. In December, Yahya relinquished
power to Bhutto, and on
16th December 1971 the independent
state of Bangladesh came into existence. When the
Commonwealth of Nations admitted Bangladesh later
that year, Pakistan withdrew from membership, not to
return until 1989. However, the Bhutto government
gave diplomatic recognition to Bangladesh in 1974.
Under
Bhutto's leadership a diminished Pakistan began to
rearrange its national life. Bhutto nationalized
basic industries, insurance companies, domestically
owned banks, and schools and colleges. He also
instituted modest land reforms that benefited
tenants and middle-class farmers. He removed the
armed forces from the process of decision-making,
but to placate the generals he allocated about 6 per
cent of the gross national product to defense. In
1973 the National Assembly adopted the country's
fifth constitution. Bhutto became Prime Minister,
and Fazal Elahi Chaudhry replaced him as President.
Although discontented, the military remained silent
for some time. Bhutto's nationalization program and
land reforms further earned him the enmity of the
entrepreneurial and capitalist class, while
religious leaders saw in his socialism an enemy of
Islam. His decisive flaw, however, was his inability
to deal constructively with the opposition. His rule
grew heavy-handed. In general elections in March
1977 nine opposition parties united in the Pakistan
National Alliance (PNA) to run against Bhutto's PPP.
Losing in three of the four provinces, the PNA
alleged that Bhutto had rigged the vote. It
boycotted the provincial elections a few days later
and organized demonstrations throughout the country
that lasted for six weeks.
notable achievements, although it did not eliminate
the basic problems of Pakistani society. A land
reforms commission appointed by Ayub distributed
some 900,000 hectares (2.2 million acres) of land
among 150,000 tenants. The reforms, however, did not
erase feudal relationships in the countryside; about
6,000 landlords still retained an area three times
larger than that given to the 150,000 tenants.
During Ayub's regime developmental funds to East
Pakistan increased more than threefold. This had a
noticeable effect on the economy of the eastern
part, but the disparity between the two sectors of
Pakistan was not eliminated.
For
a long time Ayub maintained cordial relations with
the United States, stimulating substantial economic
and military aid to Pakistan. This relationship,
however, deteriorated in 1965, when another war with
India over Kashmir broke out. The United States then
suspended military and economic aid to both
countries, thus denying Pakistan badly needed
weapons. The USSR then intervened to mediate the
conflict, inviting Ayub and Prime Minister Lal
Bahadur Shastri of India to Toshkent. By the terms
of the so-called Tashkent Agreement of January 1966,
the two countries withdrew their forces to pre-war
positions and restored diplomatic, economic, and
trade relations. Exchange program were initiated,
and the flow of capital goods to Pakistan increased
greatly.
servants and identified 30 families that were said
to control about half of Pakistan's gross national
product. To curb their power Yahya in 1970 issued an
ordinance against monopolies and restrictive trade
practices. He also made commitments to transfer
power to civilian authorities, but in the process of
making this shift, his intended reforms broke down.
Under
Bhutto's leadership a diminished Pakistan began to
rearrange its national life. Bhutto nationalized
basic industries, insurance companies, domestically
owned banks, and schools and colleges. He also
instituted modest land reforms that benefited
tenants and middle-class farmers. He removed the
armed forces from the process of decision-making,
but to placate the generals he allocated about 6 per
cent of the gross national product to defense. In
1973 the National Assembly adopted the country's
fifth constitution. Bhutto became Prime Minister,
and Fazal Elahi Chaudhry replaced him as President.
Although discontented, the military remained silent
for some time. Bhutto's nationalization program and
land reforms further earned him the enmity of the
entrepreneurial and capitalist class, while
religious leaders saw in his socialism an enemy of
Islam. His decisive flaw, however, was his inability
to deal constructively with the opposition. His rule
grew heavy-handed. In general elections in March
1977 nine opposition parties united in the Pakistan
National Alliance (PNA) to run against Bhutto's PPP.
Losing in three of the four provinces, the PNA
alleged that Bhutto had rigged the vote. It
boycotted the provincial elections a few days later
and organized demonstrations throughout the country
that lasted for six weeks.